Thermal Interface Material

剛剛看見一篇挺有意思的文章，標題是“全球LED三大陣營比較及廠商排名”，不禁讓我想起最近確實有更多的客戶問起關於LED的封裝和散熱材料了。

除了傳統用的焊接材料(soldering material)外，最近的好些客戶都問到關於散熱方面的材料，主要是針對高功率，高亮度(High Power High Brightness HP HB)的LED應用。傳統的硅膠(thermal grease)因爲其化學特性，導熱率比較低，而且容易在界面中移動，不能使接觸面都均勻導熱。最重要的是，隨著時間的流逝，硅膠的導熱性能會越來越差，所以現在越來越多的客戶在尋求更好的解決方案。

Indium公司的散熱界面材料（Thermal Interface Materials TIM）， 都是使用導熱係數比較高的金屬/合金，加上特殊的表面處理后，能更完整均勻地接觸導熱界面。而且即使隨著時間流逝，金屬的TIM的導熱性能也能保持穩定。

Indium公司還特意推出的網上的購買，為各種學校/機構/小量使用購買者提供方便。

Cheers!

Image: Indium Corporation.

Indium Corporation has won the Innova Award for Best Technology for its Heat-Spring^® metallic thermal interface material (TIM).

Heat-Spring is a clean, high-performance thermal solution for the increasing demands of high brightness LEDs. It is a compressible metal foil with proven performance in such demanding environments as electronics, aerospace, and power devices.

The compressible TIM provides low thermal resistance as a result of its high thermal conductivity (86W/m-K) and its ability to conform intimately to interface surfaces.

Unlike other thermal interface materials, such as thermal grease that bakes out, dries out, or pumps out during use, the thermal resistance of the Heat-Spring continues to improve with time and power cycling.

According to Jordan Ross, Market Manager for Thermal Materials, “Indium Corporation is honored to be recognized with the Innova Award for our patented Heat-Spring product. With its patented compressible interface design, Heat-Spring provides optimized surface contact, superior thermal conductivity, and enhanced heat flow.”

Sponsored by LED Journal, the Innova Awards feature leading companies within the LED market which have shown, through their products and services, the most innovative and advanced technology breakthroughs in LEDs. The award is designed to recognize companies each year for industry leadership, product development excellence, best new technology, and outstanding LED applications, which will eventually lead to the widespread adoption of LED technology in the marketplace.

Wandering through the references to indium metal on the internet, I sometimes see it referred to as, "that 'rare' metal."  But is it really so rare?  I recently talked to my colleague, Claire Miko, Director, Metals and Chemicals for Indium Corporation and asked if the reports of the rarity of the metal (like the death of Mark Twain) were greatly exaggerated.

Question:  The element indium is widely used today in many electronic (glass coating, low temperature solder, hermetic sealing and thermal interface material) and solar applications (CIG solar panels), but very little is known about it.  Can you tell us where indium metal comes from?

Claire:  Indium is a by-product of several base metals such as zinc, lead, copper, tin and other poly metallic ores. It is very abundant on the crust of the earth (much more than silver for example and the annual silver production is at least 40 times bigger than the annual indium production). Geographically indium is abundant in South America, Canada, Australia, China and the CIS, i.e. the reserves are widely spread.

 
Question:     Does indium have to be refined after it is mined?

Claire:    Indium is present in the base metal ores at ppm levels. It first needs to be separated from the base ore and concentrated. This is done at the base metal smelter (for example during the refining of zinc, lead, copper, tin etc). It is then further refined and purified at indium refineries.

Question:  Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) is the one of largest indium-containing products today.  How much of the indium mined goes to making ITO?

Claire:   About 50% of the indium refined is used for making ITO. A larger percentage is needed to start the ITO target productions but the sputtering process used (when putting the ITO layer onto the glass) is inefficient and generates a large quantity of indium which is reclaimed and is then recycled and put back into circulation.

Question:     Is there enough indium available to meet the current and future needs of the marketplace?

Claire:   The indium production has always expanded to meet growing demand. Indium production grew from 70MT (metric tonnes/year to over 500MT/year over the last 20 years. At the moment only one-third of the indium mined yearly is being refined in indium metal, another third accumulates in residues that are more expensive to treat but they remain available for future processing, and the last third is currently lost because it does not reach a base metal smelter which has the equipment to separate it from the base metal ore. Investments at these smelters would enable the extraction and refining of these quantities if the need arose.

Question:    Are there recycling programs in place to recover unused ITO from the targets used to deposit it onto the glass surfaces where it is used?  What is the rate of recovery?

Claire:   There is ample capacity to treat spent ITO targets (as per point 3) and the recovery process is now mature and very efficient. The cycle time of this process has also now become very short enabling a very quick return of the refined indium for new consumption.

Question:    Are there any viable alternatives to ITO?

Claire:   A far as we know ITO remains the best material for LCD and other flat panel displays applications. It offers the best performances in terms of optical transparency, electrical resistivity, uniformity of both transparency and resistivity, chemical and mechanical stability, resistance to corrosion, and, finally, uniformity of etching.

The cost of the ITO on 42” TV represents less than $2 and less than 1% of the display cost. It is a small cost to pay to ensure that the quality of the display is maintained. Alternative materials have shown significant process problems with resistivity, uniformity and chemical and mechanical stability.

Thermal News recently interviewed Amanda Hartnett regarding thermal management with metal TIM (thermal interface materials). You can read the full article here:

http://www.thermalnews.com/eprints/Indium_0310.html

I really like this interview, so I’m not going to give away the best parts – I want you to read it yourself. I do, however, want to provide a couple teasers to pique your interest. I’m leaving out the especially cool parts…

“Pure indium, used as a solder TIM, delivers a thermal resistance to…”

“Also, it is important to consider the reworkability of an interface material. TIMs such as … are very simple to rework. Others, such as conductive epoxies, can be quite difficult.”

“When I measure the performance of thermal interface materials, I characterize them based on ... This value is typically more valuable than bulk thermal conductivity. For a compressible TIM, the … assumes the actual contact which will be made between the interface material and it’s mating surfaces. This provides a measurement of thermal performance which is as close to real-world per Watt or per cm2 as I can provide without being application-specific.”

Are you still reading this blog? Go read the article!

~Jim

I love watching a good basketball game, and one of my favorite local teams is the Syracuse Orangemen. If you go to a Syracuse home game, notice the shot clock – it was made with Indium Corporation solder. There are a lot of places you can see our products in your everyday life. That smart phone in your pocket, the electrical components in your car, the thermal interface in the computer in front of you. That’s one of the things that makes this job rewarding, being part of so many various applications.

In addition to learning about these different applications, we also get a good reference for what assembly trends are developing, and which material technologies are becoming more popular. 

I’ve watched the halogen-free trend explode and fade, as it was adopted by some large OEMs and their contract manufacturers, but has not spread to most other companies. Another trend that is fading away from the spotlight is Pb-free die-attach solder, since the EU has not found a suitable replacement and has pushed back the exemption deadline. 

A long-existing topic that has had recent mention is solder jetting. The trend towards soldering smaller components is not new or surprising, but for smaller components (01005s and 0201s) we have seen a trend towards dispensing instead of jetting – which seems to suit those applications.

For small component printing, transfer efficiency is critical. Outside of solder paste optimization, “nano-stencil” technology is an upcoming technology that may take-off and improve paste release characteristics. Solder paste is being used in some other creative ways too, like low temperature alloy dipping paste for rework operations. Manycompanies are now using or evaluating specialized solder applications to replace components without fully reflowing the rest of the components on the board.

Integrated preforms are finding their way into more and more applications recently as well. These connected preforms are being used to reduce the need for component pallets and selective soldering operations.

All these applications are great ways that our customers are taking soldering technology to the next level, using materials and assembly methods that were not common before. I look forward to learning how you’d like to use solder in your application!

Those of you have been watching this blog for a while will know that I’ve been keeping tabs on the status of the European ELV (End-of-life vehicle) legislation on lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd) and hexavalent chromium (Cr^VI). It’s been both galling and heartening at the same time, to find that when I Google “elv legislation”, this (my) blog keeps coming up as one of the top 10 sources on the subject. OK: enough of the bloggy, solipsistic prevarication...

My friend, Geert Willems of IMEC late last week let me know that the EC (European Commission) had given its final decisions on Annex II ("the exceptions"), and pretty much adopted the recommendations of the Öko Institute from their 127 page report of September last year (2009). I have to say my hat is off to Dr. Otmar Deubzer of IZM and Stéphanie Zangl of Öko for the very thorough and logical background to this legislation.

The decisions that affect those of us in the semiconductor (flip-chip) and power semiconductor arena are primarily the ones on lead (Pb) in solders, that were formerly covered by section 8.a/ and 8.b/ of the old, outdated Annex II to Directive 2000/53/EC, and are now covered by this new legislation.

A quick visual summary of the legislation relevant to lead (Pb) in electrical interconnects is given below, and please consult the original document for confirmation, as I may have missed some subtlety of the legalese in my quest for brevity. Also, frankly, subsection 8 (b) led to some Transatlantic confusion over whether finishes on pin connectors and PWB's were covered(?), but I think the below is correct:




Refer to the table below for the timeline for of each subsection/exception:



Note that the last review of exemptions was carried out in 2009, with potential effect by 1/1/2011. This implies that the legislative hammer will potentially fall on each of those usages slated for future review on January 1st two years after the review year. Lead (Pb) for most electronics attach usages of interest to those of us in semiconductor and power semiconductor packaging may therefore be "legislated out" by 1/1/2016.

Basically, the use of Pb-containing solders in solder paste, die-attach paste, die-attach wire, solder preforms, and thermal interface materials (TIMs) in automotive electronics assembly is safe for now, and changes will not be forced on the automotive electronics assembly industry at a time when even current manufacturing practises may be leading to still-unresolved safety incidents.

Cheers!  Andy

Okay, I have a confession to make: I’ve always had a grudge against bismuth, ever since I started recommending thermal interface materials. It is the polar opposite of my favorite element (indium) – well, as much as a metal can be. These 2 elements (indium or bismuth) are added to almost every solder with a lower solidus temperature than Sn/Pb. The choice for most thermal interface applications that I have dealt with was indium or an indium alloy, but now I am starting to become very fond of my new friend bismuth for solar applications.

Bi/Sn and Bi/Sn/Ag are now available as a solderable coating for our Tabbing and Bus Ribbon. After getting a feel for this material, I must say I find it pretty nice to work with. Both alloys melt at 138-139degC, with the Bi/Sn/Ag having a greater tensile strength (which is not necessarily a good thing for tabbing ribbon). With a little bit of lab time I have isolated an existing flux that works very well with these alloys. So far GS-5454 has formed good solder bonds down to 160degC. This is great news, because it allows you to minimize the reflow temperature (and stresses) of your C-Si/tabbing ribbon interface. 

~Jim

下周在硅谷地区，Indium公司会参加Semi-Therm---“热管理”的盛会！

在微型化(miniaturization)的今天，我们的各种电子产品都越来越小，但是性能更多更齐全，消耗功率更大，那么单位面积上所要求的散热，也应该越来越多。 这是为什么这几年热管理(Thermal Management), 热管理材料(Thermal Interface Materials---TIM) 会成为我们讨论的热门话题。  举个简单的例子吧， LED灯，面临的最大挑战之一就是如何解决热管理问题。

传统的热管理材料， 有导热硅胶(Grease), graphite, 相变导热材料(phase-change materials)等。这些化学材料都很便宜，也能起到一定的导热性能。 但是因为物理性质的限制，金属的导热性能的普遍都比这些化学物质的导热性能强很多。 比如说化学材料，一般能做到几瓦每摄氏度的热传导(thermal transfer efficiency), 已经很不错了。但是金属材料，如纯铟片(pure Indium foil)，在一定的表面处理后，是86W/⁰C.  

好了，先写到这里。 下周再和你分享更多展会等热管理材料的信息！ 

PS:  除了在下周在Semi-Therm展会和客户等一系列活动，3月份我会踏上一段新的征程，转去西雅图工作，负责美国西北部一系列的销售/技术活动。期待与你分享更多新技术，工艺信息，行业动态，客户疑难等！ Cheers!  

I caught up with Alan Rae after a recent IWLPC committee meeting, where he jokingly asked me to, “Stop asking important questions” - LOL! He was kind enough to give me a few moments of his time to share his wit and wisdom, and answer some technology questions that, yes, I thought were kind of important…

[Andy Mackie] You’re increasingly being seen as “Dr Nano” by the electronics industry – how did you arrive as the focus of so much of this technology?

[Alan Rae] At the start of my career I was in the structural ceramics business. In the days of “ceramic fever” in the 1980’s the mantra was sub-micron and monosize (monodisperse) for lower temperature processing and better properties. It worked. Then at TAM Ceramics we made “sub-micron” barium titanate and other ceramic materials but we didn’t call it nano then. When I was at Cookson Electronics in the early 2000’s we started to see nanotechnology emerging from the woodwork with people saying the same about nanomaterials for the electronics industry. Then I joined NanoDynamics in 2004 and realized the scope and potential, ranging from semiconductors to touch screens to printable electronics, to LED lighting, to solar power, to materials such as nano solders, dielectrics, conductors…the list is growing but the leitmotiv is the same – small, monosize, tightly-controlled. 

[Andy Mackie] OK, so Nanotechnology has been a buzzword for quite a while – is there a clear definition yet, and what current uses are there for nanotechnologies that may not be immediately obvious?

[Alan Rae] Well, the definition has been really tough to derive – ISO TC 229 “Nanotechnologies” came up with a definition that one dimension of a particle, needle or plate should be less than 100nm but it’s really tough to define…should all particles be less than 100 nm? 50%? Any? And should it be exactly 100nm? There are a lot of opinions. The Woodrow Wilson Institute lists over 800 consumer products containing nanomaterials on the market now – industrially the products range from semiconductors, to fillers in packaging materials and underfills, to antimicrobial and self-cleaning coatings for phones. Solar panels, especially thin film ones, depend on nanomaterials in their manufacture.

[Andy Mackie] What is in the pipeline for nanotech electronics and semiconductor interconnect materials? I know that nanosolders are starting to gain ground in some areas – what else is upcoming?

[Alan Rae] Much of the work in nano metals is being done by universities and small companies – for example my small company is working with Purdue and the Air Force to develop a novel solder technology – but commercialization will come by partnering with established companies like Indium Corporation, who have the distribution and technical support so that customers will be comfortable with a new material. Cost and reliability are king. Indium is already in the reactive nano foil business; there are existing and near-term applications for silver, silver-coated copper, alumina coated boron nitride and their combinations in adhesives, shielding materials and thermal interface materials.

[Andy Mackie] Several years ago, quantum dots were being promulgated for tunable band-gap detectors and quantum computers. How close are quantum dots to seeing real uses, and what else is on the horizon?

[Alan Rae] Quantum dots are unique and have great potential in medical imaging and as frequency shifters for LEDs. The markets haven’t developed yet because of the cost and because some of the best dots are cadmium (toxic metal) based. I’m working with a group at University of Buffalo which has a silicon quantum dot process that looks like a promising alternative. Quantum dots will have their time…but not just yet. In terms of new developments – they range from core shell and modulated structures for thermoelectric to replacing indium tin oxide with carbon nanotubes or graphene. The US National Nanotechnology Initiative tracked $1.6 billion in Government spending (check out www.nano.gov) in the last year at Universities and small businesses and NSF has set up centers of excellence at Cornell and other great universities that are really working hard to translate science into technology so we can make practical products.

=======

Alan, many thanks for your time, and for sharing your insights with us.

Cheers!  Andy

上週末看中央二台新聞“每週讀報”，有這樣一個話題引起了我的注意“今天，你低碳了嗎？”

從什麽時候開始，我也開始接觸“低碳經濟 Low-Carbon Economic” “低碳生活 Low-Carbon Life”“碳足跡Carbon Footprint” 等生活中和工作上的常聽見的詞語。甚至，《貨幣戰爭》的作者宋鴻兵還提出了以“碳排放量Carbon Emission”來作爲衡量一個國家GDP增長的指標之一。  就像“每週讀報”中號召的“節水，節電，節油，節氣，節能”，我也乘機來分享一下工作上和生活中的點滴響應這個號召的小事。

1.      LED燈---節電。 我們的生活中處處都有LED燈的身影。比如2008年北京奧運璀璨的鳥巢和水立方，就是大量使用了高亮度的LED燈 （High Bright LED---HB LED）。 現在各地政府給街道從白熾燈換到LED燈，據説如果全國1/3的城市都換上LED燈，大量節省的能源是無法估量的。 而LED組裝製造的一個重要瓶頸，就是解決散熱問題。 黨普通的化學材料無法對LED燈起到很好的熱傳導性能(thermal efficiency)，金屬散熱材料，從其物理特性來説，就是下一個首選的散熱材料了。 希望使用LED燈，能緩解各地方的能源緊缺，我們美麗的杭州西湖，也不用常常関燈停電了。 更多關於金屬散熱界面材料信息，請看這裡。 (Thermal Interface Materials---TIM)

2.      汽車---節油。 剛剛在美國底特律舉行完畢的汽車展，混合動力車(hybrid car)，無疑是一個最熱門的話題。 如果日後買車，除了關注你汽車的價錢，也請關注它是不是混合動力車，以及每升汽油的公里數哦。(在美國，是每加侖汽油的英里數，Miles Per Gallon--MPG)

3.      太陽能---節能。 我還想在以前的文章裏面，寫過許多關於太陽能光復電池製造，或是組裝加工的文章了。哈哈，我還是少賣一點“廣告”了。 一句話，Indium公司提供太陽能光復薄膜電池材料，以及太陽能電池板組裝焊接材料。

不積跬步，無以至千里。今天，你低碳了嗎？ 

PS:  前段時間我看2010 CES的新產品介紹，微軟公司居然說已經和好幾個汽車廠商在合作，不久的將來在汽車内部能安裝軟件系統，告訴你汽車每時每刻的carbon emission, 或是累積的排放！ WOW！！！我只知道，汽車内部的電腦系統用的電路板，組裝要求十分嚴格，通常要求100%的通過率。所以我們也必須提供十分高可靠性的焊接材料！　

At some point we have all had experiences which convinced us that metals have a high thermal conductivity. It may have been the hot spoon you left in your coffee after stirring in a little cream and sugar, or the hot door handle you grabbed on a simmering hot summer day when climbing into that now-vintage car of yours. In fact, the high thermal conductivity of metal can even account for the ability to get your tongue stuck to a metal pole in the cold of winter (or the metal screen door while waiting for the school bus as was my childhood experience). We generally understand the phenomena of metals to have a high thermal conductivity to be true, however what is the basic science behind the high thermal conductivity of metal?

In the July/August issue of Advancing Microelectronics, Dave Saums, Bob Jarrett, Andy Mackie, and Jordan Ross published an article titled, “Thermal Management Materials Choices for Power Semiconductors,” which begins to explain this.   


 

The article describes metal generically as positive ions within a “communal sea of their valence electrons”, together providing a net neutral charge.  The image above depicts this arrangement.   A metal is unique because unlike non-metallics which are viewed as highly organized lattices, valence electrons of metal atoms are not strongly held by the nucleus and are highly mobile. These mobile electrons transfer electric charge as well as heat across the metallic structure.  This freedom of the valence electrons accounts for the high thermal conductivity in metals.  At ambient temperatures, metals are attributed with high conductance, however an additional rise in thermal conductivity is found as environmental temperatures rise.  This activity can be explained using the principles explained in the Wiedemann-Franz Law.  

In electronics packaging, there are many materials to choose from which will provide various thermal dissipation outcomes. Metallic materials are generally preferred for high power devices due to their high thermal conductivity, lending them for adoption in heat sinks, heat spreaders, baseplates, and even thermal interface materials as Indium is most familiar with.  

Generically, a phase change material is one which will store or release energy when it changes phase from solid to liquid or liquid to solid. According to this generic classification, there are 4 general categories of phase change materials.

• Salt Hydrates such as Sodium Sulfate, Calcium Chloride, Sodium Acetates,etc
• Eutectic Salts
• Paraffins
• Non-Paraffin Organics

These phase change material categories are not all-encompassing, however. Other materials such as metals, eutectic or not, are used as phase change materials for their thermal energy storage and removal abilities. 

Nearly all soft solders classify as phase change materials according to their melting temperature. According to Maurice J. Marongiu from MJM Engineering, who conducted a webinar on phase change materials, the melting temperature of a typical phase change material is between 0-250ºC. Solders officially may melt at higher temperatures, such as the AuGe eutectic alloy which melts at 356ºC, however the majority of solders used melt below 250ºC. 

Phase change materials are a common occurrence in the world of thermal interfaces for electronics. Here, tighter commonalities between phase change materials can be found. For instance, the phase change temperature for these thermal interface materials is within the range of a common TIM junction temperature, which is typically lower than 100ºC. For this reason, when we consider a metal interface to be a phase change material in this industry, it is an alloy or material which changes phase below 100ºC.

When implementing a metal or non-metal phase change material into a thermal interface, there are some design considerations to be made:

• Phase change materials are applied as solid pads. At room temperature they are firm and available with specific dimensions which make them easy to handle. Consistent application should be inherent.

• Phase change materials each change phase at a unique temperature. The appropriate phase change material engineered for an application will have a phase change temperature reached within the normal operating cycle of the device.

• Phase change materials are designed to turn liquid in operation. The liquid phase of these materials will have a distinct viscosity. Depending on the material, clamping pressure and assembly orientation, the molten material may leak. Proper precautions should be taken to prevent material leakage, especially toward active electrical components if the phase change material is electrically conductive.          

• When reservoirs are created to contain a phase change material, these reservoirs must accommodate the liquid phase of the phase change material as well as the solid phase. As a phase change material changes from solid to liquid there is an increase in the material volume. If the phase change material expands and fractures the reservoir, this will lead to leaks and the eventual failure of the electronic device as the thermal interface becomes backfilled with air.  

Materials to be used in packaging of high power semiconductor devices are often chosen by their coefficient of thermal expansion, or CTE. For instance, substrates such as AlSiC, Molybdenum, and Tungsten are chosen to mimic the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) values of the materials they will be attached to so as they expand and contract, the substrates do so in tandem, minimizing the mechanical stresses at the interfaces between these areas, or their CTE mismatch.

The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of indium does not match many materials, yet it is chosen commonly as a solder thermal interface material between substrates with as dissimilar substrate properties as silicon and copper. 

How can indium bond together silicon with a CTE of 2.6PPM/ºC and copper with a CTE of approximately 17 PPM/ºC, then undergo years of thermal and power cycling, and not show degradation of thermal performance?

The answer is in the strength and malleability of indium. Indium is the softest metal which is stable in air. Although the CTE of indium is 29 PPM/ºC, the tensile strength of indium is 273PSI, which is very soft, and the shear strength of indium is 890PSI, which is significantly higher. In an application where indium is soldered to a back-side metallized die and a copper integrated heat spreader, there is significant CTE mismatch. 

However, assuming the interfaces of these solder joints is sound with minimal voids, the bulk indium will bend and stretch along with the contraction of substrates and will not crack.        

Break down of a radio frequency

终于，终于发3G牌照了。基站设备厂商们拿到电信，移动，和新联通的订单后，也已经在紧锣密鼓地建设新基站或是给旧的基站更新换代了。

在3G基站的建设中，会用到Radio Frequency (RF)射频设备。一般来说，每一个RF中有两个功率放大器Power Amplifier(PA)。无论是PA的制造，还是RF的组装，Indium公司都提供了系列可靠性能强的精确焊接材料。比如说PA的制造，我们有AuSn预成型焊片(preform)或是焊带(ribbon)；RF的组装，我们可以提供有铅无铅的焊锡膏(solder paste)，含驻焊剂的焊片(flux coated preform)，还有散热界面材料Thermal Interface Material (TIM).

好友王说，移动在全国大概要建40万台3G基站；从家人朋友那里也听闻到电信，新联通的一些数据，粗略估计，分别建(或是硬件更新)30万台基站吧（如果我的估算偏差大了，欢迎随时联系azhang@indium.com ）。那么，全国就要建100万台3G基站了。平均每一个基站有6个RF，每一个RF有两个PA，每一个PA的制造/封装，可以用到4个含驻焊剂的焊片，每一个RF可以用到一个散热界面材料(TIM)，我们把这些乘的乘，加的加，也大概可以估算出中国的3G基站建设用到多少焊接材料了。

Cheers!

PS: 1. 好久没有回中国了，这次回来亲身感受到各方面的"冲击"，其中热门的3G应该是最大的冲击之一吧。 2. 好久没有正面接触曾经的老本行通信了；这些年来学习和工作的内容，与通信直接相联系的较少。这次当被一个同事问起3G的一些知识时，我哑口无言了…当时倍感对不起北邮，对不起亲戚朋友们。哈哈，看来我这"烂船"也要修修补补了，不然连"三斤铁"都没有了。

Pic: From Jordan Ross with Indium Corp.

Thermal Profile of Alabama. Source: Worldbook Encyclopedia

The program details are coming together for this event coming up in Huntsville, Alabama and the presentations are going to include some pertinent information on thermal interface materials for engineers or scientists working on thermal issues at all levels. There will be some discussions about the general principles behind thermal interface materials, a discussion about the characteristics of the various materials currently available, and a presentation of test data for the high performance material options.